Indus Valley Civilization Notes for SSC Exams

The Indus Valley Civilization (also called the Harappan Civilization) is one of the most important topics of Ancient Indian History in SSC CGL, CHSL, MTS and other exams. Every year the question paper contains one or two direct questions on sites, discoverers, rivers and features of this civilization. These notes explain the topic in a simple, point-wise way with tables and practice questions, written the way a teacher would revise it before the exam.

Introduction and Time Period

• It was the first urban civilization of the Indian subcontinent and belongs to the Bronze Age.
• The mature (urban) phase is dated to about 2600 to 1900 BCE. The early phase is about 3300 to 2600 BCE and the late phase about 1900 to 1300 BCE.
• It spread over roughly 1.3 million square kilometres, which is larger than the contemporary civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia.
• The three other early civilizations of the world are Mesopotamia (Tigris-Euphrates), Egypt (Nile) and China (Yellow river).
• It is called Harappan because Harappa was the first site discovered, and Indus Valley because early sites were found in the Indus basin.

Discovery of the Civilization

Extent and Important Sites

The civilization spread over present-day Pakistan, north-western India and parts of Afghanistan. The four extreme points are: Manda (Jammu and Kashmir, on the Chenab) in the north, Daimabad (Maharashtra, on the Pravara) in the south, Sutkagendor (Balochistan, on the Dasht river) in the west and Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, on the Hindon) in the east.

Town Planning and Architecture

• Cities were laid out on a grid pattern; roads cut each other at right angles.
• Each city had two parts: a citadel (raised and fortified, on the western side) and a lower town (on the eastern side). Dholavira had three parts.
• Houses were made of burnt bricks in the standard ratio of 4:2:1 (length : breadth : height) and had flat roofs, a courtyard and private wells and bathrooms.
• A remarkable covered drainage system ran along the streets with manholes for cleaning. This is considered the most advanced of its time.
• Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro: a large tank about 12 m long, 7 m wide and 2.4 m deep, made waterproof with bitumen, probably used for ritual bathing.
• Granaries were found at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and Lothal (some scholars call the Mohenjo-daro one a public building).
• No temples or palaces have been clearly identified.

Economy

Agriculture and Animals

• Crops: wheat, barley, peas, lentils, sesame, mustard, dates, melon; cotton was cultivated (the Greeks called it sindon); rice at Lothal and Rangpur.
• The plough (a terracotta model at Banawali) and a ploughed field at Kalibangan show farming practice. Irrigation was mainly river-based.
• Animals domesticated: humped bull, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, dog, cat, fowl and elephant. The camel is seen at Kalibangan. The horse is not clearly known.

Crafts, Metals and Trade

• Metals known: copper, bronze, tin, gold and silver. Iron was not known. The lost-wax (cire perdue) technique was used for bronze casting.
• Bead making was a major craft (carnelian beads of Chanhudaro and Lothal). Pottery was wheel-made, red with black designs.
• Weights were in multiples of 16 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 160, 320, 640...) and made of chert. Rulers made of ivory and shell have been found.
• Seals of steatite (soft stone) were used for trade. The most common animal on seals is the unicorn (short-horned bull).
• Trade partners: Mesopotamia (Indus was called Meluhha), Dilmun (Bahrain), Magan (Oman), Afghanistan and Central Asia. A Harappan trading colony existed at Shortughai in Afghanistan for lapis lazuli.
• Sources of raw materials: copper from Khetri (Rajasthan), tin and lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, carnelian from Gujarat, shell from the coast.

Society, Religion and Art

• There is no evidence of a king; some scholars suggest a ruling class of merchants and priests. Society looks relatively equal but had differences in house sizes.
• Mother goddess worship is shown by many terracotta female figurines. The Pashupati (Proto-Shiva) seal shows a horned figure surrounded by animals. Tree worship (peepal), animal worship, phallic symbols and the swastika symbol are also found.
• Fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal suggest ritual practice.
• Burial: mostly extended burials with pottery and ornaments. Lothal has a double burial and Cemetery R-37 is at Harappa.
• Bronze Dancing Girl (Mohenjo-daro), the steatite bearded man (Mohenjo-daro), the red sandstone torso (Harappa) and the terracotta toy carts are famous works of art.
• Script: pictographic, about 400 to 450 signs, written mostly right to left (boustrophedon in some seals) and undeciphered.

Decline of the Civilization

• Drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra (Saraswati) river system and climate change (weaker monsoon).
• Repeated floods in the Indus plain (Mohenjo-daro shows flood layers) and shifts in river courses.
• Decline in trade with Mesopotamia, loss of the urban economy and migration of people to smaller villages in the east and south.
• The earlier theory of the invasion by the Aryans (Mortimer Wheeler) is rejected by most modern scholars as the evidence of violence is weak.

Quick Revision Table: Sites and Discoverers

One-Line Facts for Revision

• Great Bath: Mohenjo-daro. Dockyard: Lothal. Fire altars: Kalibangan, Lothal. Stadium and water system: Dholavira.
• Only city without a citadel: Chanhudaro. Shell industry: Balakot. Ploughed field: Kalibangan.
• The Harappans worshipped no temples, did not know iron and probably did not use the horse.
• Dholavira was added to the UNESCO list in 2021 as India's 40th World Heritage Site.
• The largest Harappan city overall is Mohenjo-daro; in India, it is Rakhigarhi.

Practice Questions With Answers

1. Who discovered Harappa? Answer: Daya Ram Sahni
2. Which site has a dockyard? Answer: Lothal
3. The Great Bath was found at: Answer: Mohenjo-daro
4. Which Harappan site is on the Ghaggar and has fire altars? Answer: Kalibangan
5. Which Harappan city had no citadel? Answer: Chanhudaro
6. Which metal was not known to the Harappans? Answer: Iron
7. The standard brick ratio in Harappan cities was: Answer: 4:2:1
8. What was the Indus region called in Mesopotamian records? Answer: Meluhha
9. Which Harappan site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2021? Answer: Dholavira
10. The southernmost site of the Indus Valley Civilization is: Answer: Daimabad

After this topic, read the Prehistoric Period notes to understand the background of the Harappan culture, and test yourself with our previous year papers. For other subjects, see all SSC study notes.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the Indus Valley Civilization?

The Indus Valley Civilization, also called the Harappan Civilization, was the first urban culture of the Indian subcontinent. It flourished mainly in the north-western parts of South Asia, along the Indus and the now dried Ghaggar-Hakra river system, and its mature phase is dated to about 2600 to 1900 BCE. It was a Bronze Age civilization known for planned cities, drainage, standard weights and a still undeciphered script.

Why is it called the Harappan Civilization?

Archaeologists name a culture after the first site where it was identified. Harappa was the first site to be found (1921), so the culture is called Harappan. The name Indus Valley came because most of the early sites were found in the Indus basin.

Who discovered Harappa and Mohenjo-daro?

Daya Ram Sahni discovered Harappa in 1921, and Rakhal Das (R.D.) Banerji discovered Mohenjo-daro in 1922. Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, announced the civilization to the world in 1924.

What does Mohenjo-daro mean?

Mohenjo-daro means "Mound of the Dead" in the Sindhi language. It lies on the bank of the Indus in the Larkana district of Sindh, Pakistan.

What are the main features of Harappan town planning?

Cities were built on a grid pattern with streets crossing at right angles, divided into a raised citadel in the west and a lower town in the east, with burnt bricks of a standard ratio (4:2:1), well-planned covered drains, wells and public buildings such as the Great Bath and granaries.

Which is the largest Harappan site in India?

Rakhigarhi in Haryana (Hisar district) is generally treated as the largest Harappan site in India. Dholavira in Gujarat is the most famous Indian site for its water-conservation system and three-part city.

Which Harappan site has a dockyard?

Lothal in Gujarat, on the Bhogava river near the Gulf of Khambhat, has a brick-built dockyard. It was a major trading port and bead-making centre. It was excavated by S.R. Rao from 1955.

Why is Dholavira important?

Dholavira, on Khadir island in the Rann of Kutch, has a unique three-part division (citadel, middle town and lower town), a sophisticated system of reservoirs and channels, and a signboard with ten large Harappan signs. It was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2021 and is the first Harappan site in India to get the tag.

What is the Pashupati seal?

It is a steatite seal from Mohenjo-daro showing a figure seated in a yogic posture with a horned headdress and surrounded by animals. Sir John Marshall called it Proto-Shiva, though this identification is debated.

Which crops did the Harappans grow?

They grew wheat, barley, peas, sesame, mustard, dates and cotton. Rice is found at Lothal and Rangpur. They knew cotton so well that the Greeks later called it sindon. They did not use iron.

Did the Harappans know the horse and iron?

There is no clear evidence of the horse in the mature Harappan phase (bones reported from Surkotada are debated), and iron was unknown. They used copper, bronze, tin, gold and silver.

What was the script of the Indus Valley Civilization?

The script is pictographic and has about 400 to 450 signs. It is found mainly on seals and was written mostly from right to left. It has not been deciphered so far, so our knowledge of the civilization comes from archaeology.

With which regions did the Harappans trade?

They traded with Mesopotamia (called Meluhha in Mesopotamian texts for the Indus region), Dilmun (Bahrain) and Magan (Oman). They exported beads, cotton cloth, ivory and shell items and imported silver, tin and lapis lazuli.

What were the possible causes of the decline of the Harappan cities?

Scholars give many reasons: drying of the Ghaggar-Hakra river and climate change, floods in the Indus plain, shifts in river courses, decline in trade with Mesopotamia and gradual urban breakdown. The old theory of Aryan invasion by Mortimer Wheeler is not accepted by most scholars today.

Which Harappan sites are in Pakistan and which are in India?

In Pakistan: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Chanhudaro, Kot Diji, Sutkagendor and Balakot. In India: Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, Banawali, Ropar, Surkotada, Alamgirpur and Manda.

What is the extent of the Indus Valley Civilization?

Manda (Jammu) is the northernmost site, Daimabad (Maharashtra) is the southernmost, Sutkagendor (Balochistan) is the westernmost, and Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh) is the easternmost.

Which topics from the Indus Valley Civilization are asked most in SSC exams?

Site and river pairs, discoverers, town planning, important finds like the Great Bath and the Dancing Girl, trade links, religion and the causes of decline. The tables in these notes cover all of them.